1. Field of the Disclosure
The disclosed subject matter relates generally to a method and apparatus for repelling an undesired species, such as an insect, from a subject species such as livestock, humans, domestic pets, and so forth.
2. Description of the Related Art
Various techniques, or electrochemical sensing methodologies, have been developed to measure and “map” electromagnetic fields in the study of chemical, biological, environmental and industrial applications. Electrochemical sensing methodologies are used in a wide range of applications, from understanding the physics of electron transfer (ET) to process monitoring. From a plethora of electrochemical techniques, voltammetry, where the electrode voltage is excited in a predetermined manner, has been heavily applied for various chemical, biological, environmental and industrial measurements.
For instance, cyclic voltammetry, where the voltage excitation is a ramp, has provided new insights in phenomena as diverse as neurotransmitter dynamics, protein ET or fuel cell technology. Recently, more complicated voltage inputs such as alternating current (AC) voltammetry have been applied in order to probe the electrochemical system under investigation on different timescales, explore the kinetics and thermodynamics of different processes, or selectively target specific process dynamics, such as parallel reactions, leading to comparisons with NMR or impedance spectroscopy but with the advantage of including in vivo applications.
Subatomic particles including protons and electrons influence the electromagnetic characteristics of a substance in which the particles occur. As an example, protons and neutrons affect the manner in which a substance accepts and donates electrons. Carbon, for instance, has very stable electrons in the outer shell and is therefore a good insulator with respect to electrical currents. On the other hand, many metals have loosely coupled electrons in the other shell that make these materials good conductors. How substances react to each other may be influenced by the “shapes” of their respective voltammetrically determined i-t-E surfaces. See, e.g., Voltammetry Retrospective, Analytical Chemistry, Volume 72, No. 9 pp. 346A-352A (2000).